2004年8月19日 星期四

愛爾蘭見習之行的心得報告

愛爾蘭見習之行的心得報告

施逸翔 2004/08/19

前言

七月十八日約莫快要三點多的時候,我回到家中,十天的愛爾蘭之行算是正式結束了,一進門見到的就是母親,她也剛從某個山林裡的登山活動中回來,她馬上問我課上得怎麼樣,我一邊拿出髒衣服,一邊拿出包裹在其中的玻璃瓶蜂蜜和果醬,並顯得疲態地說:「好多都聽不懂,因為英文實在是跟不上。」這個回到家中最直覺的心得評註,就是影響我出發前所設定的一些目標的主要因素,因為溝通能力的不足和有限,使我在達到目標的過程中倍感辛苦,因此也為得來不易的些許成果感到安慰。當然,不見得所有的因素都要歸諸溝通能力,在個別的情況中還是有許多疏失是值得檢討和改進的。以下我將就設定的幾個目標,說明整個愛爾蘭之行的過程當中,發生了什麼事、有什麼成果、有哪些疏失、應該做什麼樣的改進、未來不論是自己還是其他的伙伴,如果有同樣的機會的話,應該要做什麼樣的事前準備與臨機應變。

為什麼要設定這些目標?

這一兩年來,我漸漸地從課堂上,以及張佛泉人權研究中心與人權學程的活動參與中,瞭解到國際社會的面貌,以及聯合國與NGOs在國際社會中的角色扮演,然而這些知識畢竟還只是在想像的層次上,尚未從實際的經驗當中瞭解更多。雖然我相信這個發展當中的國際社會運作機制,對於和平的努力具有相當的力量和作用力,但實際上我自己對其中的運作其實相當地陌生,在網路上、在書籍裡,我們可以輕易地得知《世界人權宣言》是西元幾年決議宣佈的,知道這些宣言的內涵,但是對於這些宣言條款,為什麼最後會是以這樣的方式呈現?其背後的協商過程是怎麼發生的?這個宣言對當前與未來的國際社會,會產生什麼樣的影響?關於這些,對於現在的我而言,其實都很一知半解。

就像這次愛爾蘭之行的主題,完全就是以1998717日在聯合國通過的《國際刑事法院羅馬規約》為主題,出國前,在忙碌的生活之餘,我讀了瑤華老師介紹我看的一些「國際刑事法庭」的成立背景與規約內容,但來高威(Galway),在為期五天(7/10~7/14)的實際上課當中,我警覺到自己準備的行前功課得實在太少,因為課程裡頭,我感受到最精彩的部分莫過於,羅馬規約形成的過程當中,其複雜的國際關係與國家之間的磋商折衝,兩千多個NGOs如何讓國際刑事法庭具有合乎正義要求的獨立性,以及聯合國安理會與理事會又以什麼樣的手段從中介入和支配,在這樣的「政治」角力競逐之間,究竟有沒有可能解決那些大規模人權侵犯的事件呢?因為5P(國際五強)在國際社會上的勢力,看來仍然還打著他們自名的「正義」旗幟,想要以「權力」(power)維持power國際秩序。

然後,當同學們對條款之間的邏輯關係、各條款的作用以及其意義清楚瞭解之後,便開始援引各種實際的例子或想像的例子,來試探羅馬規約的限度與可能會產生的問題。雖然我從零碎的筆記與卡卡的聽力中,可以知道整個上課的情境大概進行到了哪裡,但我還是無法在這次的見習經驗當中,當下吸收每位講師的立場和見解、同學們提問問題的核心、以及老師們又如何回應他們的問題,當然就更別提可以去掌握他們作了哪些的論證,如果我能像烏干達來的同學、盧安達來的同學、塞爾維亞來的同學一樣,提出與臺灣相關的處境做問題討論的話,我想這實在是再理想不過了,但是這一點當時的我還是力有未逮。

因此我自知這次的見習經驗究竟對自己即將要書寫的論文,甚至對臺灣未來的國際處境能提出什麼想法,老實說我還在評估當中,不過有一件事情是很確定的,也就是說,我不但更加瞭解到國際社會的走向,是有好多人、好多組織,他們來自世界各地,都在想辦法阻止上個世紀以來和這個世紀也不斷在發生的人權侵犯,並綢繆努力朝向妥善的解決對策,而且這也使我更加確信,進入國際社會的重要性。然而,這個強烈的信念也使我深刻地瞭解到臺灣對於國際社會的無知,雖然在國內一天到晚呼籲推展外交的重要性,但是我覺得這實在相當有限,要是臺灣的民間社會對國際社會的概況就具有相當的瞭解,那麼臺灣要進入國際社會的入口就不會只是靠外交一途,而很可能是以多元社會的觸媒漸漸地進入政治的或非政治的國際社會。但是在台灣,能接觸到國際社會的大眾傳媒,如果不主動地藉由網際網路的話,大概就只剩下公共電視、ICRTTaipei Times有比較多的國際新聞,而幾家重要大報的國際新聞在比重上都明顯偏低,可是我這次在愛爾蘭買了當地的報紙,我發覺他們國際新聞的版面就比臺灣的大報來得多,而且幾次看到當地的電視新聞,國際新聞和在地新聞幾乎都是穿插著報導的,雖然短時間內觀察不出個所以然,以作進一步的判斷,但我想多角度地去接觸國際新聞,而非只是片面地來來回回於美國與大陸新聞之間,這是否有助於我們進入國際社會呢?我覺得答案應該是肯定的。當我在回程的飛機上看到《愛爾蘭日報》有整個版面都在報導上百萬因為內戰而四處流亡的蘇丹難民處境時,我再回想到連日來在愛爾蘭的課程與研討會,我就感到這些課程所蘊含的重要性,並覺得這個國際機制還要更加強有力、更加健全才行,否則一直周旋於國際政治競技場裡,對於許多像蘇丹這些正在發生的苦難而言,就顯得十分地遙遠。當我們在國內不是只知道中共的武力威脅,與美伊之間的關係,而是能夠知道更多國家的內部問題,與聯合國現在在做什麼樣的對策時,我想這些都可以作為我們極力要進入國際社會,當一個世界公民的準備工作,要進入國際社會的不是只有外交部和臺灣政府,而是整個臺灣。

基於以上所談的國際社會,以及臺灣進入國際社會的重要性,以及平時在課堂上、在人權學程、在張佛泉人權研究中心,耳濡目染到NGOs的力量,還有愛爾蘭之行的行前說明會上,瑤華老師提到參與國際活動最重要的目的,就是要串連起各項資源,去開發不論是對自己還是對臺灣其他團體的延續性,因此我大致上為自己設定了幾個愛爾蘭之行的目標:

認識並串連國際上各地的朋友、人權組織或NGOs

瞭解國際上人權組織的運作。

介紹國內的人權組織,至少介紹東吳大學人權學程與張佛泉人權研究中心給國際友人和國際組織知道。

由於這次愛爾蘭之行的主要活動,就是參與愛爾蘭人權中心所舉辦的國際刑事法庭夏季課程,以及隨後的國際研討會,因此最主要的目標想當然爾就是:

課程與研討會方面的上課學習。

目標一:課程與研討會方面的上課學習

1. 國際刑事法庭夏季課程(Summer Course on the International Criminal Court[1]

飛機、巴士勞頓之後,我和李勝雄律師與馬潤明律師來到了GalwayCorrib Village,在愛爾蘭大學旁的Corrib Village休息一晚之後,隔天(7/10)課程就要正式開始了。第一天的課程上午11點才開始,所有同學在早餐餐廳前集合,集合時間一到便由工作人員帶我們到上課的地點,我們大概步行了十幾分鐘,到了一棟名為Arts Millennium的大樓裡某一間大教室,之後幾天我們幾乎都在這建築附近來來回回活動。第一天的課程我算是比較有進入狀況,課後還有作了一些心得筆記,摘要如下:

7/10/04

ICC課程的第一天,有一點跟不上,但大致上兩堂課下來,一方面幫助我們瞭解整個國際社會創立ICC的背景,另一方面也幫助我們明瞭ICC在確立審判權上的種種阻力,第一堂課由William Schabas來進行,他先問我們誰最先到Galway,以及誰從最遠來,於是大家發覺同學們遍及國際,有巴西、墨西哥、烏干達、中國(Schabas有點訝異甚至語帶諷刺)、夏威夷、蘇聯、義大利、剛果、加拿大、印度、蘇丹、丹麥、斯洛維尼亞、塞爾維亞、巴基斯坦、巴勒斯坦、奈及利亞、匈牙利、伊索匹亞、北愛爾蘭、斯里蘭卡、哥倫比亞、倫敦、蘇格蘭(沒有日本,但Schabas有特別提到日本與聯合國之間的關係),當然也有愛爾蘭當地的朋友。他發覺我們都沒有他的書,他要求他的工作人員發他寫的書給我們,書名為《對於國際刑事法庭的一個引介》,他並沒有要我們馬上打開書來看,反而他非常熟練且如數家珍地介紹起整個ICC的成立背景,雖然我的英文能力讓我跟不太上,但片段地聽下來,其實在瑤華老師借我的書中,在第一章以及第七章之中都有提到。

先說第一堂課所涉及的問題,如果我沒有誤解的話,其實Schabas在闡述過程當中有提及在第一次世界大戰後,戰勝國起訴戰敗國的正義問題,戰敗國可能會有哪些藉口、聯合國的核心議題就是關於侵犯人性罪、國內法對於人權侵犯的失敗,那替代的機制為何?等等。當他問到為何我們需要ICC時,他說是因為我們可以起訴侵犯者,對之加以咎責。他也提及幾個二次大戰之後著名的審判,像是東京、鈕倫堡以及艾克曼的審判、冷戰交疊出審判責任的問題,各界各地消失人口之家屬有證據知道這些侵犯人權的事實,可是侵犯人權的政府或軍隊卻決口說不知道,對外宣稱說沒有證據、23年前後人權法有很大的差異,警察、起訴者和特赦,90年代幾個重大的國際人權侵犯的起訴:ICTY1992)、ICTR1994)、94~98年代磋商折衝要改變規約,以便獨立於聯合國,不想成為UN的一體,而是獨立的個體,想脫離安理會的控制……

隨著我越來越知道我自己的英文能力實在跟不上之後,我在筆記上本的筆記越來越失去了脈絡,我記的都是瑣瑣碎碎的名詞,然而,可以幫助我較不脫離脈絡太遠的因素有四:現場的互動、講師的輔助教材(但通常都沒有,似乎當地習慣即席演講)、Schabas的書,以及坐在我旁邊的李勝雄律師或馬潤明律師。

我之後的每一堂課,包括研討會,都全神貫注地在講者和發問者的英文,並強記之,一聽到說者有提到規約第幾條或那個關鍵字,我就會趕快翻翻Schabas的書來看,但是若一提到某個國度的例子,比如說獅子山(Sierra Leone)或斐濟(Fiji)的例子,我就沒輒了,套一句黃默老師常常說的話,這方面我實在沒有什麼背景,只好回國後找機會要惡補一番。至於回宿舍的晚上,有時間我也會翻看隔天的相關內容,但一天下來集中精神實在很累,實在也看不了多少。課後我也會找機會問問李律師和馬律師,問他們我聽的方向對不對,但這一點幫助似乎不大,因為他們的回應大多是,要我回去後可以念念法律、或這太專業了等等,雖然我很抗拒要我去念法律的建議,但他們的建議也不是沒有道理,因為這次來參加的學員,幾乎都是來自法律界的專業人士,有法律系學生、律師、國際特赦組織、法官、檢察官、法律系教授等等,我有一天晚上自己走路回宿舍的時候,還在心理自嘲自己實在是”a unlawful student”,一想到這一點其實我也就寬心了不少,因為我知道自己的任務和立場跟大家都不一樣,甚至我其實應該要多問問法律專業的問題,有好幾次下課後回宿舍的路上,李律師大概知道我跟不太上,就會用河洛話分享他的心得給我聽,我也會跟他說我的想法,他還會說臺灣的事情、AI的事情,我覺得這些時光很特別也很有幫助,比叫我再去念法律實在不知好多少。

偶爾講師運用到輔助教材時,無疑地會讓我更加進入脈絡,但機會實在很少很少,像我手邊的有關「侵略罪」的講義,還是我下課後拿著隨身碟向講師Nicolaos Strapatsas說我很需要這份PowerPoint的檔案,因為我不但近視看不到,抄寫的速度也慢,後來他就說他會印給大家一人一份,於是我們就有了五天來的唯一一份講義,其他像是幻燈片和寫黑板,這些我是絕對不會放過的。我覺得在準備上課資料和講義的部分,是這次夏季課程的一個缺點,在台灣我們很善用講義和輔助教材,可是愛爾蘭當地似乎很不擅於此道,但是也不能說他們完全沒有準備,畢竟我們人手一本William Schabas的書[2],因為這樣,Ms. Sharon Williams 法官還調侃說,我們幾乎把Schabas的書當成聖經了。

大體而言,第一天的課程算是對ICC與羅馬規約的歷史、背景、和限制作了不少介紹,甚至包含許多國際政治關係與ICC之間的糾葛,我覺得比較特別的是,下午最後一堂課的內容,也就是PM 355之後,Ms. Sharon Williams 法官的開放問題討論時間,這時候大家在針對聯合國的決議案(Resolution)做討論,我的筆記中記載著:「這是一種承認recognition的技巧,但非常具有爭議性。」要不是李律師把他事前從網路上下載的文件遞給我看,我也不會知道大家在討論些什麼東西,原來這就是一整天下來提了好多次的ICC之獨立性的問題,大意是美國[3]作為5P之一,想要透過安理會的決議案1422[4]1487號來控制或破壞ICC,對於ICC的起訴獨立性造成阻力,相關的批評和討論我回國這幾天有找到AMNESTY INTERNATIONALHUMAN RIGHTS WATCH[5]相關的討論,在Google上鍵入關鍵字會出現更多的討論,由此可以看到整個課程裡對於美國政府方面的不滿態度是很鮮明的,據說課程開始前幾天,小布希有到Galway來一趟,對此Schabas調侃了一番,Galway在地的免費地方報上的社論也批評了一番,連我們去Aran Islands的船上,坐在隔壁的太太也對小布希大有微詞。

討論了決議案之後,Sharon法官還討論到各國對於羅馬規約的聲明和保留意見,特別是哥倫比亞[6]的聲明。最後也稍微提到真相委員會的問題,似乎ICTYTRC之間有著某種衝突的關係,但是關於這兩點更深入的瞭解,當下我並沒有掌握到,因此需要再做一些功課。

第二天的課程對我而言非常困難,因為已經不像第一天那麼巨觀地在看ICC了,今天彷彿要我們操作顯微鏡一樣,要微觀地檢查ICC的運作機制,只是我覺得自己應該要先學會如何操作這台顯微鏡才行。第一堂課由Mr. Hakan Friman法官講授ICC的程序和證據規則,在愛爾蘭人權中心發給我們的師資簡歷當中,提到Hakan法官是瑞典委任的ICC成員之一。這堂課我抄寫下Hakan法官在黑板上寫的一個程序表,如下表:

Mr. Hakan Friman法官所製作的ICC程序簡表」

Procedure

trigger

(啟動機制)

investigate

PT

Trial

Appeal

Review

Article 81~83

Article

13~15

Article

5456

6units

Sentencing

Article 110

Article 60

Pre-trial

Article 61 Article 65 reparatives

Mr. Hakan Friman法官整堂課便大致循著這個表格一一地講解,比較特別的是,他花了很多時間在談「預審分庭」(pre-trial chamber)在ICC當中的功能,和ICC成立的過程一樣,這個機制也脫離不了高度政治性的磋商折衝,因為Hakan法官特別強調這個機制對於檢察官的牽制作用。

接下來的這堂課涉及到案件之可受理性(admissibility)的問題,同樣由Ms. Sharon Williams 法官來進行,Sharon法官先針對這個概念以及這個機制在聯合國與歐盟法院當中的形成背景作一介紹,她特別提到之前在ICTYICTR裡並沒有像國際刑事現在這樣的機制,因為如果說一個公開的法庭才合乎公平原則(fair)的話,那麼國際法庭如何讓各國政府與人民更容易接近,證據和證人的相關問題、政府與被害者之間的溝通問題等等,似乎都應該要納入考量。然後,Ms. Sharon Williams 法官便從羅馬規約第17條進入主題,提到羅馬會議針對審判權的基礎作討論。當議題觸及到各地TRC的特赦問題時,William Schabas在我的左前方便起來為大家講解獅子山TRC的情況,以及它與ICTYICTR之間的關係。

第二天的最後一堂課由Bart Brown教授進行,Bart教授曾經參與1998年建立國際刑事法庭的羅馬外交會議,這堂課的主題幾乎都圍繞在國際政治上作討論,Bart教授稱這為”real politics””real world”,包括非常保守的勢力與基進的實體之間的對抗,這是一種新世界的秩序。Bart教授問NGOs這些正義之士所熱衷的國際法庭能作些什麼?又ICC能貢獻出什麼來?

接下來的三天裡,課程更從ICC的背景與實體架構延伸到它所要處理的是哪些犯罪行為、受害者和加害者各自所具有的權利為何,而處理這些問題時ICC又是依據哪些一般性原則在運作。因此,根據羅馬規約第五條所定義的那四種罪行,就有四堂課專門針對它們進行說明和討論。雖然這四堂課有很多細節我一樣無法掌握,但我很確定的是,這些罪行定義的內涵都來自對於過去的反省以及對於未來的預防,然而這不只是1998年羅馬外交會議一次的關鍵成果而已,每一字每一句背後很可能都開了好幾次的國際會議,每一次的會議可能都會就歷史上相關的條約作討論,什麼可以保留、什麼要加以修改,又實際上各國發生了哪些情況,構不構成例外,這些國際之間其實是很難達成共識的,要達成共識各國一定要通過磋商折衝才行,比如說在談到戰爭犯罪的時候,關於「性侵犯」各國對於”gender”一字的不同理解,就造成各國對性侵犯的定義都不相同,最後我們才會在羅馬規約第七條最後看到以下這樣特殊的定義:「爲了本規約的目的,“性別一詞應被理解爲是指社會上的男女兩性。性別一詞僅反映上述意思。[7]因此,當William Schabas在談「大屠殺」時,便展現了他對整個大屠殺歷史背景的功力,以及ICC在定義這個概念時的侷限性,像根據人權宣言,破壞文化算不算大屠殺、ICC對大屠殺的定義可不可以保護到女性等等問題。當William Schabas的學生Nicolaos Strapatsas談到「侵略罪」時,便展現了他對過去所以相關條約和會議的理解。當Ray Murphy博士談到「戰爭犯罪」時,便展現了他對於如何指認個人責任的敏感度。當Leila Sadat教授[8]談到「侵犯人性罪」時,就展現了她對於整個成立ICC協商過程所依據的幾項原則和必要條件的瞭解,像是如何協調國際法、國際不成文規範以及各國國內法,犯罪的要件主權與審判權的要件等等。當Diane Amann教授談到「刑罰與受害者的權利」時,她提到了應報與懲罰的概念,我覺得這一堂課是我最親切的一堂課,因為這些問題與我的論文是直接相關的,Diane教授提到,應報與懲罰意義的重大改變,這應該是一種達到平衡的回溯性正義,是在做一種道德上對的事情,而且是為了要促進和平,然後她運用幻燈片展現了她對於羅馬規約中每一種刑罰的考量和限制的瞭解。當Michael Scharf教授談到「被告的權利」時,便觸及了米洛塞維奇的例子,像是被告自我辯護的問題、測謊的問題法官如何主持審判的問題等等。

整個課程的最後一天(7/14)下午,愛爾蘭人權中心在Galway當地的法院舉行了一次ICC模擬法庭,並作為整個夏季課程的結業典禮,這是一個輕鬆而有趣的模擬法庭,愛爾蘭人權中心設計了一個虛構的case,牽涉到國際間不同的法律造成ICC的檢察官難以審判的問題,以及一國如果沒有在國內批准羅馬規約的話,ICC可不可以進行起訴和審判的問題,基本上這個模擬法庭可以幫助我們去思考ICC未來究竟會面臨到哪些技術面的問題。

這五天以來,整個夏季課程對我而言是個很繁重的課業,我一方面缺乏專業的法律背景與國際關係的背景,再加上語文能力的限制,另一方面這麼多綜合各種領域的課程壓縮在五天內進行,少有時間進行課前準備與課後預習的消化吸收,因此在體力和集中力上倍感辛苦,我差不多在第三天時就幾乎已經無法正常地上課了,因為精神壓力實在很大,未來如果有類似的機會可以參與這樣的活動的話,我想除了自己事前要加強相關知識的準備、英文聽力和自我表達能力之外,我建議可以透過相關的上課輔助器材(如錄音機、攝影機)以及分組整理筆記的方式來增加上課吸收能力,以及減輕過於繁重的上課壓力。

目標二:認識並串連國際上各地的朋友、人權組織或NGOs

目標三:介紹國內的人權組織,至少介紹人權學程與張佛泉人權研究中心給國際友人和組織知道。

在愛爾蘭的前幾天裡,當我意識到自己的表達能力發生嚴重的問題時,我便開始擔心自己是否可以達成這兩項目標。一開始,只要我有機會與同學們談話,我便會遞上我的名片,並說明我來自臺灣東吳大學的人權學程,並給予他們學程製作的英文簡介,然而我發覺大部分的同學皆興趣缺缺,這可能有幾個原因:1.他們不清楚這是什麼樣的單位;2.他們感到難以與我作進一步的溝通;3.他們對此不感興趣。針對第一個原因,我總會說明人權學程是一個在大學裡推廣人權教育的機構,然而我發覺第二個原因影響我無法作進一步的說明非常大,所以不管他們是不是因為第三個原因而難以認識東吳大學的人權學程,我認為我的英文表達力不足是主要的原因,以致於我無法充分地說明人權學程將會開設那些課程,有哪些老師等等具體的事情,我覺得未來我一定要克服不敢說英文的自我設限。

無論如何,我為了讓更多人瞭解東吳大學的人權學程,我在夏季課程最後一天的晚上打了一份說帖:

Dear Companion,

It is fortunate that we can meet in Galway. As a result of my poor expression, we can’t know each other any more. But my team and I are very willing to contact with you with respect to anything about human rights. I hope that we can keep communication and even that some day, if you like, welcome you to Taiwan.

Le gach deal-mhein,

Best regards,

Shih, Yi-hsing

Assistant, Soochow University Human Rights Program

並將此連同人權學程的英文簡介與貼紙放在上課的教室裡讓同學們自由取閱,事後有許多同學向我表示他們很樂意與人權學程聯繫,並願意提供人權學程相關的協助,或者希望人權學程和張佛泉人權研究中心有舉辦會議的話,都要記得通知他們,雖然回應有限,但我認為我可以用自己的表達方式與他人互動,是一次有趣的經驗。因此,我認識了一些也在人權中心工作的朋友,或者是對人權學程有興趣的朋友,他們給了我一些鼓勵,告訴我在人權中心工作是一件很棒的工作,我與他們一一認識的經過無法一一贅述,但我想我非常感謝這些朋友,他們分別是Center for Civil and Human Rights, Notre Dame University Law SchoolNidal SlimanLibra Law OfficeAbiodun OdusoteInstituut Recht en Samenleving, Faculteit RechtsgeleerdheidJean Migabo KalereMcGrigors RightsAndrea SummersELSAThe European Law Students’ Association, Russia)的Sergey VasilievHawaiian Institute for Human RightsJoshua CooperInstitute of Criminology, Faculty of Law, Hebrew University of JerusalemLeslie SebbaICTY of the United Nations的陳初晴法官。

附錄一:

Summer Course on the International Criminal Court at the

Irish Centre for Human Rights

July 10-14th 2004

Saturday July 10

11 AM Introductory lecture: history of international prosecution, the Rome Conference and the preparatory work, establishment of the Court (William Schabas)

2 PM Territorial, personal and universal jurisdiction (Sharon Williams)

The Role of the Prosecutor in initiating proceedings (William Schabas)

7 PM Welcoming reception at the Irish Centre for Human Rights

Sunday July 11

9:30 AM Procedure: The Rules of Procedure and Evidence (Hakan Friman)

2 PM Admissibility (Sharon Williams)

Relationship with the Security Council (Bart Brown)

7 PM Film: Judgment at Nuremberg

Monday July 12

9:30 AM Subject matter jurisdiction: Aggression (Nicolaos Strapatsas)

Subject matter jurisdiction: Genocide (William Schabas)

12:30 PM Tourism: Boat trip to Aran Islands

Tuesday July 13

9:30 AM General principles (Yoram Shachar)

Subject matter jurisdiction: War Crimes (Ray Murphy)

2 PM Rights of the accused (Michael Scharf)

Command responsibility (Bart Brown)

Wednesday July 14

9:30 AM Subject matter jurisdiction: Crimes against humanity (Leila Sadat)

Penalties and rights of victims (Diane Amann)

2 PM State cooperation (John McManus)

Simulated trial before the ICC

7 PM Dinner/Barbeque at Student Pub at University

附錄二:

Resolution 1422 (2002)

Adopted by the Security Council at its 4572nd meeting, on

12 July 2002

The Security Council,

Taking note of the entry into force on 1 July 2002, of the Statute of the

International Criminal Court (ICC), done at Rome 17 July 1998 (the Rome Statute),

Emphasizing the importance to international peace and security of United

Nations operations,

Noting that not all States are parties to the Rome Statute,

Noting that States Parties to the Rome Statute have chosen to accept its

jurisdiction in accordance with the Statute and in particular the principle of

complementarity,

Noting that States not Party to the Rome Statute will continue to fulfil their

responsibilities in their national jurisdictions in relation to international crimes,

Determining that operations established or authorized by the United Nations

Security Council are deployed to maintain or restore international peace and

security,

Determining further that it is in the interests of international peace and security

to facilitate Member States’ ability to contribute to operations established or

authorized by the United Nations Security Council,

Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations,

1. Requests, consistent with the provisions of Article 16 of the Rome Statute,

that the ICC, if a case arises involving current or former officials or personnel from a

contributing State not a Party to the Rome Statute over acts or omissions relating to a

United Nations established or authorized operation, shall for a twelve-month period

starting 1 July 2002 not commence or proceed with investigation or prosecution of any

such case, unless the Security Council decides otherwise;

2. Expresses the intention to renew the request in paragraph 1 under the same

conditions each 1 July for further 12-month periods for as long as may be necessary;

3. Decides that Member States shall take no action inconsistent with

paragraph 1 and with their international obligations;

4. Decides to remain seized of the matter.

(引自網址:http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/7a399ae94254b5e1c1256c8b003baf0a?Opendocument

附錄三:

The ICC and the Security Council: Resolution 1422
Legal and Policy Analysis

I. Introduction

One of the key prongs in the Bush administration's campaign to undermine the International Criminal Court (ICC) is Security Council Resolution 1422. The resolution grants immunity to personnel from ICC non-states parties involved in United Nations (U.N.) established or authorized missions for a renewable twelve-month period.

The Security Council adopted Resolution 1422 on July 12, 2002, following an intense debate on the U.N. Peacekeeping Mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina (UNMIBH). In an extraordinary step two weeks earlier, United States UN Ambassador John Negroponte vetoed the mission's renewal. In addition, Bush administration officials threatened to veto the renewal of all peacekeeping operations, if council members did not agree to the text of Resolution 1422. Eager to preserve peacekeeping operations, Security Council members adopted the text despite its serious flaws.

With the date for 1422's renewal fast approaching, Human Rights Watch urges ICC states parties and signatory parties to take the initiative now. Whether the U.S. attempts to make renewal a mere formality or tries to go further by obtaining a permanent blanket immunity for its forces, there are compelling reasons for ICC supporting states to act. If Resolution 1422 is renewed, it will likely consolidate the exemption obtained last year and codify the immunity as a permanent "amendment" to the Rome Treaty. Human Rights Watch believes the stakes are far higher this year than last.

While ultimately the decision is in the hands of Security Council members, all ICC states parties and signatory parties have an important role to play in pressing the council to respect the Rome Statute. Human Rights Watch recognizes the political difficulties involved. States that opposed the recent U.S. military actions in Iraq may be reluctant to engage in another tense wrangle with the Bush administration at the Security Council. Opposing 1422's renewal is not an easy prospect, but the issues raised by Resolution 1422 are too important to ignore. The legitimacy of the ICC is at stake.

Human Rights Watch opposes Resolution 1422 for two reasons: (i) it grossly distorts the meaning of Articles 16 and 27 of the Rome Statute in ways that weaken the independence of the court; and (ii) by amending a multilateral treaty in this way the Security Council has overstepped its authority under the United Nations Charter.

We urge states to pursue a principled course and build opposition to renewing Resolution 1422 at all. At the same time, Human Rights Watch realizes that an outright rejection of 1422 may prove to be impossible. If renewal becomes unavoidable, then, at a minimum, states parties and signatory states (on and off the council) should urge council members to adopt a resolution consistent with the Rome Statute and the U.N. Charter.

Ultimately, the decision rests with the members of the council. However, last year's debate demonstrates the important role non-members have to play in pressing the council to respect the Rome Statute.

II. Human Rights Watch Analysis

Article 16

The terms of Article 16 are clear. It states:

"No investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with under this Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security Council, in a resolution adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, has requested the Court to that effect; that request may be renewed by the Council under the same conditions."

The article establishes a mechanism for deferring investigations or prosecutions on a case-by-case basis, subject to time limitations and a formal renewal process. This interpretation is derived from reading the article "in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning" of the words, as required by the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. It is also consistent with the drafting history of Article 16.

The phrase, "no investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with," presupposes the existence of a particular "investigation" or "prosecution" that relates to a specific incident or the potential culpability of an individual regarding specific conduct. Article 15 of the Rome Statute spells this out. The Pre-Trial Chamber must authorize the commencement of a specific "investigation." All prosecutor inquiries up to this point are not "investigations," but only "preliminary examinations" - see Article 15(6). Only after Pre-Trial Chamber authorization of an "investigation" is the Security Council entitled to request a deferral under Article 16.

The structure of the Rome Statute further underscores the requirement that any Security Council deferral request must respond to a specific case. Article 16 appears after Articles 12 - 15 (dealing with the mechanisms triggering ICC jurisdiction), demonstrating that, as a matter of logic, an Article 16 deferral request is not meant to be a tool for Security Council preventive, indiscriminate action, but a response to specific ICC proceedings. Any such deferral must be temporary, subject to the 12-month limit stipulated in Article 16, so that the perpetrators of any atrocities would ultimately be brought to account for their crimes - either via national judicial systems or the ICC.

It is clear, then, that Article 16 does not sanction blanket immunity in relation to unknown, future events.

The above interpretation of Article 16 is consistent with one of the Rome Statute's key features: to limit the role of the Security Council vis-à-vis the ICC, and specifically to prevent the court's investigations and prosecutions from being subject to prior Security Council approval. But by ignoring the "case-by-case" requirements of Article 16, the current text of 1422 does exactly the opposite, subjugating the ICC to the politics of the Security Council. Others appear to agree. During the Security Council Open Meeting on July 10, 2002, one ambassador asserted, "[Resolution 1422] would have the Council, Lewis Carroll-like, stand Article 16 of the Rome Statute on its head." This same mistake should not be made when the resolution is renegotiated.

Article 27

Article 27 of the Rome Statue expressly prohibits making distinctions on the basis of official capacity. It is a crucial provision that encompasses the fundamental object and purpose of the treaty to ensure that no person is above the law. This includes peacekeepers, as well as politicians and heads of state. Without strict adherence to this principle, the door to impunity will remain open. In contrast, Resolution 1422 allows an entire class of individuals to escape judgment of the ICC, opening the door to impunity if national courts of non-states parties fail to carry out good faith investigations and prosecutions. It is a clear violation of Article 27 of the Statute.

Defenders of the resolution argued that, as a matter of practice, 1422 would not damage the "core" of the ICC's jurisdiction by exempting a class of individuals from ICC jurisdiction because the risk of U.N. peacekeepers committing Rome Statute crimes was said to be very low. Even if this is true most of the time, it is still no justification for violating Article 27. And Human Rights Watch has recently documented crimes of sexual violence, including rape, allegedly perpetrated by ECOMOG and UNAMSIL peacekeepers in Sierra Leone (see "We'll Kill You if You Cry" at http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/sierraleone). These disturbing allegations highlight the necessity to preserve Article 27 intact.

Resolution 1422, by bestowing blanket immunity from the court's jurisdiction to an entire class of persons in advance of unknown future events, is in manifest violation of the Rome Statute. Ultimately, of course, the court has the final word in determining the legal and practical effect of the resolution; however, all states parties have the obligation now to avoid renewing a resolution that violates the Rome Statute.

An Additional Reason to Reject Renewal of 1422: Security Council Overreach

Human Rights Watch's chief concerns with Resolution 1422 relate to its interface with the Rome Statute, as it effectively amends this important multilateral treaty. But renewing Resolution 1422 should be resisted for another important reason: so that the Security Council does not overreach its authority and acts within the U.N. Charter.

The powers of the Security Council are subject to important limitations, governed by the U.N. Charter and customary international law. Before invoking its powers under Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter, the Security Council is required to make a finding of a threat to peace - see Article 39 of the U.N. Charter. The Security Council never made this determination in Resolution 1422. It is beyond the legal authority of the council to have invoked Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter without clearly identifying the threat to international peace and security.

III. Human Rights Watch's Recommendations

Human Rights Watch believes, for the reasons stated above, that the principled course is for states to work together to reject any proposed renewal of Resolution 1422 by the Security Council.

As an alternative, and only if renewal becomes unavoidable, the current text of the resolution should be changed to reflect the requirements of the Rome Statute. We support a text requiring the Security Council, before requesting a deferral, to make a case-by-case analysis of specific situations or incidents when investigations or prosecutions are underway. This text should also require Security Council renewal every twelve months.

This amendment of 1422 is necessary based on a fair and reasoned analysis of Articles 16 and 27 of the Rome Statute.

The key component of an acceptable solution, along the lines of a proposal circulated by a state member last year, would be:

The Security Council expresses its readiness, pursuant to Article 16 of the Rome Statute, to consider on a case-by-case basis requesting the ICC to defer, for a renewable period of 12 months, investigations or prosecutions involving nationals of states not party to the Rome Statute participating in United Nations Security Council established or authorized operations only if necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security.

Inclusion of a firm requirement to renew after twelve months is commanded by Article 16, and cannot be interpreted otherwise. All states should resist any efforts by the United States to pass a resolution granting permanent immunity from the ICC.

Human Rights Watch urges all states to promote the adoption of provisions similar to this text with Security Council members over coming weeks and months.

IV. Conclusion

Human Rights Watch believes that the legal and policy arguments calling for a rejection of 1422, or a significant reworking of its operative provisions, are compelling.

States should approach the upcoming Security Council negotiations aware that the Bush administration's push for a renewal of Resolution 1422 is not based on principled objections to the court, or out of concern for the future of international peacekeeping. Instead, the U.S. remains suspicious of international institutions that are not under its control. For this reason, the Bush administration seeks to undermine and marginalize the ICC, which is poised to become a truly independent and impartial arbiter of international justice and the rule of law.

(引自網址:http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/docs/1422legal.htm



[1] 課程表請參考附錄。

[2] 老實說這厚厚的一本書有一半是羅馬規約、程序與證據的規則、還有罪行的要件,這些在網路上都可以下載。

[3] 需注意美國雖然在2000年底時簽署了羅馬規約,但尚未承認和接受該規約,而且美國政府還在2002年寄了以下的消息給聯合國的安理會:「This is to inform you, in connection with the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court adopted on July 17,1998, that the United States does not intend to become a party to the treaty. Accordingly, the United States has no legal obligations arising from its signature on December 31, 2000. The United States requests that its intention not to become a party, as expressed in this letter, be reflected in the depositary’s status lists relating to this treaty.」(引自Schabas的書pp.420

[4] 請參考附錄二。

[5] 請參考附錄三。

[6] 請參考Schabas的書pp.422

[7] 請參考Schabas的書pp.5193

[8] Leila教授曾經擔任過1995ICC國際法聯合委員會的主席,以及1998年聯合國成立ICC羅馬外交會議的NGO代表。

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